Hydraulically induced fractures have been used to stimulate oil and gas wells for the past 25 years. Hassebroek and Waters" summarized the advancements in fracturing technology through the first 15 years. During this period, great strides were made in the understanding, engineering and mechanical aspects of hydraulic fracturing. In the last few years, interest in hydraulic fracturing has gained a renewed momentum. The combination of declining domestic reserves and increased prices for oil and gas has turned the petroleum industry's attention toward the recovery of hydrocarbons from tight reservoirs. In these low-permeability formations, hydraulic fracturing treatments are routinely performed upon initial completion. Successful stimulation depends upon creating a fracture, which can be propped for the desired length, using a fluid that does not substantially reduce the formation permeability next to the fracture. The selection of the fluid, therefore, is usually the key to designing a successful fracture treatment. One of the more recent innovations in fracturing technology is the use of foam as a fracturing fluid.2" Foam, which is a mixture of gaseous nitrogen, water and a surfactant, has been used for many years as a drilling and workover fluid. The properties of foam, such as low hydrostatic head, low water content and excellent suspension of solids, make it an ideal fluid for drilling into or working over low-pressure, water-sensitive reservoirs. These same properties led to the development of foam as a fracturing fluid. The viscosity of foam was investigated by Mitchell.7 His experimental findings confirmed the existing theories that foam flow could be predicted using single-phase flow theory. Blauer, et a1.8 extended Mitchell's work by investigating foam flow in oilfield-size tubulars. The results of their work have been successfully applied to the design of hundreds of stable foam fracturing treatments during the past two years. The properties of foam as a fracturing fluid have been well documented.2"3 In both Refs. 2 and 3, sections were included which discussed the design procedure for fracturing with foam. The purpose of this paper is to present a computerized approach to the engineering design of stable foam fracturing treatments. A computer program, which is available for industry use, has been written which calculates the behavior of the foam in the tubulars and the resulting fracture dimensions. The effects of specific changes in fracture treatment design can be easily analyzed, which allows the engineer to optimize the treatment design.

The effect of depressed oil and gas prices on investors' confidence has been reflected by the low activity levels in the Permian Basin as elsewhere. Yet, even during the 1986-87 period viable projects were available to the industrious and imaginative. One example is the Wentz (Clearfork) Field where a small independent operator recognized potential in what appeared to be a very marginal waterflood prospect. Through data gathering and engineering, the potential was documented to the point that investor funding became available. A cooperative waterflood plan was agreed to with the field's other operator. The project was installed with an emphasis on practicality, cost savings and attention to details. injection, production response is exceeding expectations

The Downhole Video Service provides a real time and on-site image of wellbore conditions in both the open and cased hole environments. In the open hole environment, the video service may 1) record images of hydrocarbon entry from the formation into the wellbore, 2) show the presence of natural fracture systems that intersect the wellbore and 3) reveal the placement of hydraulically induced fractures. Because of these features, the Downhole Video Service can be used for making pipe setting decisions and for optimizing the stimulation techniques.

The downhole video camera provides an on-site and real-time image of wellbore conditions in both the open and cased hole environments. In the cased hole environments the camera is utilized for such conventional applications as the following: -to inspect for the condition of the casing, -to view the presence of the various fluid phases, and -to determme the location and orientation of obstacles in the wellbore. In the open hole the applications have involved: the visualization of both natural and hydraulically induced fractures, and the identification and location of hydrocarbon entry into the wellbore where previously undetected by conventional wireline logging analysis. With these many features and benefits. the downhole video camera provides an expeditious solution to many problems encountered in the Permian Basin.

Since the perfection of a process for producing artificial or manufactured diamonds in 1955, attempts have been made to adapt their use for stone cutting. The original stones were commercially applied to manufacturing processes for grinding and polishing as they did not exhibit resistance to abrasion sufficient for stone cutting. Additional improvements in manufactured diamonds have resulted in a high enough abrasion resistance to utilize them in stone and masonry cutting applications. Drill bits utilizing natural diamonds have individual stones as the cutting element. Manufactured diamonds are of such a small size as to make the use of individual stones as cutters impractical. The introduction in the early 1970's of a polycrystalline aggregate of manufactured diamonds produced a cutting element that became practical for use in drill bits. Laboratory and field tests began on drill bits with P.D.C. cutting structures in 1973. Continual efforts have been made since that time to produce a drill bit that is economically feasible for use in petroleum drilling operations.

This paper presents what one pipeline company is doing in the automation of its operations in the West Texas gathering area and on its mainline systems. It will cover briefly the automation in its gathering system and a possible future operation. The mainline systems will be discussed covering the controls of both electric and gas operated pump stations and the telemetering equipment now used.

Electricity has become an essential commodity in the life and economy of the American people. In the home, it is used for illumination, refrigeration, cooking, cleaning, water heating, washing, ironing, for entertainment, and to an ever increasing degree for cooling and heating. Even more important is the indispensible part it plays in turning the wheels of industry and in supplying the power required for our national defense. Yes in industry

Clays are present in a majority of hydrocarbon-bearing formations and their presence can cause many problems in the production of oil and gas. The difficulties that are encountered are complicated by the fact that clay composition and location in the rock can vary extensively. In reality, the presence of clays in any part of the drilled hole can present a variety of problems in all phases of the life of the well. There are shales that show a high degree of deterioration when contacted by the common types of water-base drilling fluids. Fluid loss from cement slurries and certain water-base stimulation fluids are another source of potential damage to permeability. Clays may be found in all types of rock. Formations made up of such rocks have been called water sensitive and may be defined as formations where a reduction in effective permeability is noted when a foreign water invades the formation. Normally, sandstone formations exhibit the greatest degree of water sensitivity. Clays may also be present in carbonate rocks but are frequently encapsulated in the rock matrix. Thus, they are not in a position to be contacted by the invading fluids. Permeability damage is primarily caused by migration of clays and other fines with fluid flow. High pH fluids, particularly those with low salt content, can cause dispersion of clays which increases their possibility of migrating. Subsequent bridging of particles at flow restrictions in the rock flow channels causes a plugging action which results in a permeability reduction. This overall effect is primarily found during the flow of water.

Shot peening has long been used in many applications to provide increased fatigue performance. This paper will provide a short summary of surface treating processes including details related to shot peening. Additionally, presented is information related to special process controls developed by a sucker rod manufacturer and trade marked "NOR-PEENING."

In the mid-1950"s, the Mark II, a new, rotary counterbalanced, sucker rod type pumping unit was developed, employing a special Class III geometry and phased counterweights. This paper reviews some of the basic functional goals envisioned for this unit by its designers, and the degree to which they have been realized. Also discussed are several functional categories involved in sucker rod pumping and the influence the unit's unique geometry has upon each of them.

Little has been written regarding the effects of electric power integrity on submergible pumping systems. The remoteness of a site and/or the economics of the distribution system can result in power which affects equipment life and efficiency. Other installed electric devices or systems can also impact the quality of supply. The purpose of this paper is not to condemn the circumstances which lead to deficient power supply situations, but rather to address their effects and discuss practical means of correcting or minimizing their effects.

Limited information is available on the effects of pressure on the set properties of cements with respect to commonly used additives. This report presents compressive strength data on cement systems cured at temperatures of 170F 10 260F and at pressures of 3,000 to 10,200 psi. Of the cement systems studied, those designed, for a specific, bottom-hole static temperature (BHST) show little change in compressive strength with increased curing pressure at BHST. However, some systems, cured at temperatures lower than BHST, gave increased or decreased compressive strength with increased curing pressure. The use of" curing pressures that simulate more closely the pressures actually found in oil or gas wells gives a better understanding of additive performance and a more realistic waiting on cement (WOC) time for cement systems.

Sloan Petroleum, the operator, had previously attempted to remove intermittent plugs of salt and sand from the non-producing wellbore of a gas well completed through 2 7/8" tubing at 2800 feet. Unsuccessful clean out efforts were made by conventional methods, first by fresh water circulation and then by wireline impacting tools. The operator also considered using reverse equipment and small diameter drill pipe but the cost was prohibitive. The problem was solved by drilling the obstructions with 1 _" coiled tubing, a 1

Today in this environment of uncertain oil price and the drive to become more cost effective, a Petroleum Engineer must have all the help possible to work smarter and more efficiently. To this end, many excellent software packages devoted to such specific disciplines such Reservoir Engineering, Project Economics, sophisticated drafting programs, and varied programs to calculate everything from bottomhole pressure to pumping unit design have been created. However how does an engineer handle the much more mundane tasks that beset him everyday that these specific packages weren't designed for? In order to effectively and efficiently manage these varied tasks, a "Computer Toolbox" of off the shelf "generic" software needs to be utilized.

The Equalizer is a totally new concept in downhole drilling string accessories. The principle of the device is much like that of a hydraulic jack as it acts as a resilient coupling between the drill string and the rock bit. Unlike spring loaded shock subs, the tool does not store energy. A series of hydraulic pistons is energized by the pressure drop generated across the jet nozzles of a rock bit by the surface mud pressure system. The mud system pressure drop is then internally utilized by the tool to provide a fluid coupling or "fluid cushion" between the bit and the drill string. At the same time, a constant weight is being transmitted to the bit. The tool has increased bit life and penetration rates, while substantially reducing shock damage to drill string components.

In 1992 the US market began to focus on the efficiency and solids handling capabilities of the Conventional Progressive Cavity Pump System (PCP). The Canadian Market. during this time frame. had already installed approximately 4000 of these units replacing conventional rod pump units. Because of the simple design and commonalties with the Rod pump conversions were made easy. (Please see figure 1. I) As the PCP

Most energy professionals must focus on a specific activity. For example, you the attendees at this Southwestern Petroleum Short Course focus on petroleum production in this region of Texas. Energy professionals also have a both personal and professional responsibility to objectively share information regarding the broad aspects of energy utilization - "The Essentials of Essential Energy Utilization" the title of this paper. This information should be provided our legislative representatives, although many local representatives have a realistic understanding regarding energy matters. A more difficult task is to provide factual energy related information to misinformed persons. A combination of wishful thinking, and false information makes these persons very difficult to approach regarding energy matters. A major purpose of this paper is to provide you a context in which energy matters may be discussed.

Well completion, in the Permian Series of West Texas, is complicated in many instances because of: 1) poor knowledge of reservoir rock, 2) improper log analysis and 3) misinterpretation of core analysis. The first completions were almost exclusively from open hole sections; however, as the years went by the need for stimulation became apparent and several methods were employed

Stuck pipe has been identified as the largest single contributor to non-productive drilling time. The use of resonant vibration as a means of freeing stuck tubulars from a well bore has been demonstrated to be effective in both Drilling and Workover environments and has the potential to provide almost immediate results in many day-to-day applications. The challenge for the future is to further explore both proven and potential applications of this technology in order to evaluate the benefits and reduce the unknown associated with the technology. The long term industry benefit will be a different approach to stuck tubular recovery available in the form of superior technology that addresses real needs while substantially reducing costs. The technology offers the benefits of being quick and easy to apply, operations are conducted from surface with no downhole intervention, and results may be achieved very quickly. Demonstrated successes in both cased and open hole applications has prompted the industry to embrace the technology as a viable and often preferred means of stuck pipe recovery.

The materials and the workmanship for the present day oil well requirements have changed greatly from those 20 to 30 years ago. Both the materials and the workmanship have been improved to meet the requirements presented to us in deep well pumping.

A number of major oil companies have begun -field tests of the lightweight, non-corrosive fiberglass sucker rods, The tests were generally made using steel sucker rods in a well for a specific time period and replacing the steel rod string with one designed with fiberglass rods. Specific detailed records were kept on these "before and after" studies by most companies. Other companies employed an independent testing firm to provide test results, This paper will compare steel sucker rods with two brands of fiberglass sucker rods manufactured by Company A and Company B. The wells in this study are divided into groups of similar depths with comparable fluid levels, pumping units and bottom-hole pumps. Four standards were developed to compare and evaluate sucker rod performance. 1. Equipment loading 2. Energy consumption 3. Fluid production 4. Failure frequency Each of these four standards was studied in depth in similar wells to compare each group of sucker rods.

The practice of lifting fluid from subsurface levels with gas pressure is not new; it has been in use for many years and is now recognized as a major method of artificial lift in petroleum production. Until recent years a detailed study of gas lift operating principles was relatively unimportant because of the low value of natural gas. With increasing gas value a study of the principles became imperative. This study has led to much advancement in development of the practice, principles and equipment.

The application of correct methods for determining the effect of pressure and temperature on the behavior of natural gas is essential in projects involving gas measurement. The gas compressibility factor may be neglected in gas calculations only at low pressures and high temperatures. This paper presents the basic equations, with example solutions, for determining the gas compressibility factor, the volumes occupied by a gas at different pressures and temperatures, and the flow of gas through pipelines as measured with an orifice meter.

Since the beginning of oil production, salt water handling has presented problems. However, recent years have brought about significant changes in attitudes and approaches to gathering, pumping and injecting large volumes of salt water. Political implication, landowner relations. And regulatory decrees have demanded increased controls on salt water disposal. The lack of, or inhibited use of, fresh water have forced greater dependence on salt water sources for waterflood. In combination, these factors have created new concepts. Water handling is no longer regarded as a side-line necessity. It is often a controlling factor in profitable oil producing operations. Efforts are constantly being directed to finding better and cheaper ways to handle large salt water volumes. New technology has joined old experiences in overcoming serious problems. This paper reviews some of the primary problems and presents methods of approach toward their solution. Caution and danger conditions are discussed. Symptom signals and control measures are described. Emphasis is placed on the systematic acquisition of appropriate data. A simplified chemical material balance concept, utilizing standardized data presentation techniques, is suggested as a way for the production engineer to derive a quantitative expression of "water quality".

Recent improvements in the Borehole Televiewer logging field have enabled oil operators to determine the presence of natural fractures and their orientations in the Spraberry and Dean Formations. Running modern open hole logs over the Spraberry and Dean zones is rarely done when these zones are the primary target zone of a well. However, the need for determining the natural fracture direction is important to the oil operator so he can optimize his offset locations with respect to the trend of the natural fracture system. Defining the trend of the fracture system is particularly important since many Spraberry/Dean wells are drilled on 40 acre spacing and are candidates for waterflood projects in many areas. The following examples document the utility of the Borehole Televiewer in both evaluating the subject formations for hydrocarbon production and optimizing the hydraulic fracture stimulation design for achieving maximum oil production.