Horizontal single-phase flow in a pipe network occurs frequently in oilfield operations. The field engineer may need to predict with reasonable accuracy the pressure loss in these lines. Nomographs from a handbook or appropriate equations from a fluid mechanics text can be employed for these calculations. The equations for Reynolds number and pressure loss in most textbooks will not have been derived in commonly employed field units, requiring numerous conversions which are excellent sources of error. To further complicate these calculations, Moody diagrams appear in the literature with two different sets of values for the friction factor. A calculated pressure loss would be in error by 400 per cent if the wrong friction factor were used. In this paper the equations for Reynolds number and pressure loss are defined in field units. Examples are included to illustrate the calculations. In addition, a listing of a computer program for calculation of the Darcy friction factor is given for the engineer who has access to a computer or terminal.

Since the first oil well was put on the beam, the oil industry has been confronted with the problem of trying to predetermine requirements of the surface pumping equipment. Industry engineers have struggled with this problem for years. Although numerous methods of well load calculations have been devised, the sizing of the pumping unit installation is still regarded as an "educated guess". This problem is recognized by leading men in the oil industry as one that will require much study and should not be taken lightly.

Due to the unusual nature of the loads encountered in oil well pumping service, a somewhat different approach is necessary for properly sizing pumping unit prime movers. This unusual load can sometimes be best explained by a look at the cycling torque loads imposed on a pumping unit gear reducer by the polished rod load. This can be illustrated by a dynamometer analysis of a typical well. A quick, yet reliable, method of determining horsepower requirements using only depth, pump size, SPM, and surface stroke length can be derived. When these methods are used in conjunction with knowledge of the unusual type loads encountered, an obvious advantage can be seen in selecting prime movers with operating characteristics suited to cycling loads. Utilization of heavy flywheel, single cylinder engines with the ability to deliver "instantaneous horsepower" considerably over the engine's continuous horsepower rating allows a more appropriate engine sizing for the "average" load. A similar approach can be taken in the selection of electric motors for pumping service through use of the characteristics found in the high slip design.

Matrix stimulation treatments (most commonly using acid as a solvent) are aimed at overcoming the effect of near wellbore damage by dissolving solids and, hence, increasing permeability. The skin factor, a parameter to account for altered flow conditions in the near wellbore vicinity, is often used as a quantitative indicator of the level of damage. In the absence of other effects, such as partial completion or poor perforations, a high positive skin factor indicates severe damage; a zero skin factor results for an undamaged well, and a negative skin factor is due to higher effective permeability in the near-wellbore region'. Thus, determining the evolution of the skin factor during a matrix stimulation treatment is a means of measuring the effectiveness of the acid or other solvent in overcoming formation damage. Based on the theory of pressure behavior in transient flow, the skin factor can be calculated from the bottomhole injection pressure and the injection rate during a treatment. However, the bottomhole pressure is seldom measured during an acidizing treatment and the injection rate is usually variable, complicating the determination of the skin factor. In a typical matrix stimulation treatment, only the surface pressure and injection rate are measured and multiple rate changes occur during the course of the treatment. These effects must be considered to properly calculate the evolving skin factor. We have developed a computer program, UTRTM (University of Texas Real-Time Monitoring), that calculates and displays the skin factor during a matrix stimulation treatment from the measured surface injection conditions. The program can be used in real-time to monitor the progress of a stimulation treatment or after completion of a treatment to analyze its effectiveness. We have used this program for a wide variety of acid treatments and found it to be extremely valuable. We present examples in this paper that illustrate how the skin analysis program can be used to optimize a particular treatment on the fly, to evaluate the effectiveness of acidizing methods applied in an area, and to quantify secondary effects, such as diversion.

The history and development of slim hole coupling derating factors will be presented. These date back to the 1960s when Conoco originated the first recommendations. Later these were modified to include the comparison of the strength of the couplings versus the strength of the sucker rod. Normally, while operators may not have had problems in the past with slimhole coupling failures, there is a current concern that old practices may not be the best practices for today's new producing wells that are deeper and producing higher volumes than normal wells. Additionally, new derating factors are provided if non-API higher strength, special grade rods are used. Recommendations are made as to what to do with design, installation, and selection of other potential couplings grades to prevent failures from occurring.

Harbison-Fischer has always promoted new product development through a continuous research program to provide our customers with the best technology. Part of this research interest has brought us to analyze the slippage variation between two standard pump configurations, one with a top hold down and the other with a bottom hold down. Several key variables have been involved in this theoretical analysis which will allow us to know a little more about the behavior of sucker rod pumps. Questions and discussion from the attendees will be encouraged.

The horizontal type internal combustion engine evolved very naturally within the oil industry and it is, next to the steam engine, probably the oldest type prime mover in continuous use in the field. Since the Otto, or four-stroke cycle had already been established, the early engines followed this, and from an effort to reduce weight and moving parts evolved the two-stroke cycle engine. So today we have the four-stroke cycle and the two-stroke cycle engines in general use in the oil fields.

Fluid-loss control additives for cement slurries have historically tended to undesirably retard compressive strength development at temperatures below approximately 13O'F. In order to counteract this retardation, calcium chloride set accelerator has often been added to the slurry. Unfortunately, calcium chloride adversely affects the performance of commonly used fluid-loss additives. Frequently, fluid-loss control can only be obtained by adding significantly higher concentrations of the additive. This often results in an unacceptably high slurry viscosity and cost. An ideal cement slurry for low-temperature applications should provide excellent fluid-loss control, adequate pumping time and rapid strength development. In addition, it is often desirable to use calcium chloride to economically accelerate the set of the cement, reducing the WOC (wait on cement) time. Recent studies of cementing applications at temperatures below 130_F have resulted in the development of cement slurries that provide excellent fluid-loss control, rapid strength development and are not adversely affected by the addition of calcium chloride. Excellent performance can be obtained using API Class A and C cements, as well as fly ash and bentonite containing lightweight slurries. Laboratory data comparing currently used fluid-loss additives with these newly developed slurries are presented. Case histories of wells cemented using these new slurries are also discussed.

Current increase in drilling activity of existing fields and reentry in oilfields brought on by upgrading of gas and oil pricing structures has necessitated small well-head compression. Types size limitations, configurations, design features and operations are discussed for compressors available in size ranges from 10 horsepower to 200 horsepower. Today's field design and application requirements for maximum compression flexibility and minimum compressor horsepower are discussed.

Sodium silicate has a long but somewhat overlooked history as a treatment option for conformance and remedial casing repair. Recently, there has been greater interest in the use of sodium silicate-based technology for these applications. The environmentally friendly nature of sodium silicate has been a key reason for this renewed interest. Low cost, durability and advances in silicate chemistry are the other factors driving this resurgence. Sodium silicate is a unique chemical in that it can undergo different types of chemical reactions. This paper will review silicate chemistry and the different reactions for setting sodium silicate. The HS&E characteristics will also be discussed. Case histories will be presented in the application of sodium silicate for blocking gas migration along micro annuli behind casing, isolating near wellbore annular fluid crossflows via channels, and step processes used to gain control over casing "pin-hole-leaks." Also presented will be the setting reaction between sodium silicate and carbon dioxide and how it can be used for CO2 EOR profile control and interwell communication diversion.

The innovation of using a standard 160D pump jack to lift water from a gas zone at 7450 feet by solar energy only, without storage batteries was presented at this seminar last year. The alternative power source to drive the pump jack motor was expanded to include a wind turbine to take advantage of wind power available in low sunlight conditions. The combination of two sources of clean energy power the unit to run at 6 strokes per minute at wind speeds as low as 11 mph. Sophisticated digital controllers providing power to the unit in "either/or" and "both" modes, is the key to this "one-of-kind" installation. A summary review of the installation and the performance data will be presente

By way of introduction, the availability of solar energy is discussed by considering such ideas as solar constant, sun angles. solar spectrum, and direct and diffuse components of radiation. Solar thermal conversion is discussed via consideration of flat plate und concentrating solar collectors, including geometries and test standards. Solar energy applications are reviewed giving current statusand estimated future importance of the following: heating, cooling and hot water, thermal-electric power generation, photo voltaic, power generation, thermal mechanical pumping, and process heat supply.

Supervisory Control And Data Acquisition (SCADA) systems are frequently located in remote, environmentally hostile locations. Even in favorable conditions, the Remote Terminal Unit's (RTU) location often dictated function with a minimum of maintenance and routine oversight from operators. These criteria imply that these systems must be durable, reliable, and portable. Without an equally durable, reliable, and portable power source, these systems cannot carry out their intended functions. Photovoltaic (PV), or solar power, systems can meet these conditions. This paper will present an overview of the steps involved in designing and installing PV power systems supplying RTUs. Reviews of two Arco systems are included.

Solar powered pump jacks have been utilized in shallow wells for some time. An American 160D pump jack with 54 inch stroke has been modified to run with a 3HP motor on a conventional rod string and down hole pump producing gas from perforations at 7369-7402 feet with seating nipple at 7450 feet. All power is provided by solar panels without back up battery power. Run times are restricted to bright sun periods. Fluid production volume rates of 2 to 3 barrels per day have been achieved. Fluid is formation water and casing leak invasion water and severely restricts gas flow. Fluid recovery over a long period of time is permissible in this project. Details, photos, and production results will be presented. This project is still on-going and any new data obtained prior to the presentation will be included. This project was partially funded by the Stripper Well Consortium.

Continuous Fiberglass Rod pump jacks system designed for efficient low horsepower are beginning to be used for dewatering of gas wells.

The accumulation of paraffin deposits in oil wells and flow lines presents a production and transportation problem that is very costly to the oil industry. This problem has been attacked in may ways but, until a few years ago the removal of such deposits was accomplished by mechanical means only. These usually involved lost time, extra labor, and special tools, all of which were expensive to the operator. Because of the high cost of such mechanical methods, it was found that, in many cases, chemical solvents, when properly applied, removed paraffin deposits from the well and flow line, with far less expense to the operator. Also, that mechanical methods and solvents could be combined to give the operator a better overall job at the lowest cost.

Many problems encountered in oil and gas production can be solved if the fluid in the well is known. It is the purpose of this paper to discuss the application of radioactive isotopes to the solution of these problems. This paper will discuss how a radioactive tracer survey is possible and the following application of it: injection profile, channel location, evaluation of perforating and fracture treatment, and cement location. The actual radioactive tracer units will be discussed briefly.

Producing companies and operators are universally concerned with reducing failures in rod pumping systems. Costly failures effect a company's profitability. A leading cause of rod pumping failures is rod buckling. This paper discusses the problems, causes, and solutions of sucker rod buckling. Various methods of determining the buckling force are presented. These methods include computer modeling, physical downhole measurement, and empirical models. Furthermore, a calculation scheme is detailed for predicting buckling modes, patches. bending moments, and peak stresses in the rod string. Buckling hysteresis and friction are also discussed. The results of the buckling predictions are supported by actual stress measurements from a downhole load cell tool. Lastly, considerations for preventing severe rod buckling are offered. All material is presented for practical field application. .

The disposal of produced water is an integral part of the oil producing operation. Various methods of disposal have been utilized over past years, however, strict anti-pollution laws prohibiting surface disposal and the high cost of trucking water have narrowed the options. On-lease disposal by pipeline into company or cooperative disposal systems is the most efficient and economical solution. Proper design of the disposal system should be given due consideration and planning to minimize the cost of disposal and to insure the life of the disposal system.

Any man responsible for oil production should obtain maximum amount of oil with a minimum amount of expensive down time. In pumping wells, the fact that maximum allowable loading of sucker rods is intimately connected with this responsibility makes it a subject of importance to us all. This paper will not attempt to outline any specific method of arriving at a set maximum allowable loadings for various grades of rods under various pumping conditions, rather it will discuss a few of the many factors which have an influence on maximum loadings. Because of these factors, the subject is a complex and sometimes controversial one.

The principal causes of motor failure in the oil field are: (1) Lighting strikes or surges (2) Single-phasing of power system supply (3) Overload or high current conditions due to low voltage conditions on the line, voltage drops, voltage unbalance on 3-phase power supply or the motor incorrectly sized to load. Are these problems the result of design or of equipment specifications? Further, what can be done to lessen equipment failures from these causes?

It would be absurd to try to discuss in one paper all of the legal problems encountered in lease operations after discovery of oil. The problems are of enormous scope and complexity and could not be adequately covered in a voluminous book. Consequently, this paper will merely attempt a general summary, without elaboration or citation of authorities, of some of the many legal problems you may encounter in your lease operations in the State of Texas.

This paper contains a brief review of submergible pumps and their application. The use of smaller capacity deeper pumping is covered, including the use of bottom-intake type equipment and the use of submergible pumps in pumping and injecting of water in waterflood projects.

In many applications, an important aspect of beam and sucker rod pumping operation and analysis has been generally unrecognized. This paper reviews and emphasizes not only this deficiency, but also the intrinsic value of several classes of dynamometer card shapes and slopes, to certain pumping unit geometries and applications. A basic understanding of the nature, character and shape of the polished rod dynagraph, and its relationship to the particular pumping unit geometry selected - coupled with the modern analytical techniques of S. G. Gibbs and others - should materially assist the designer in determining a more effective beam and rod pumping system.

A number of pilot waterfloods in carbonate reservoirs have been studied. There is a wide variation in the performance of these pilot waterfloods.